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Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movements

The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922) and the Khilafat Movement (1919–1924) were two major campaigns led by Indians against British colonial rule. Though they started for different reasons, both movements united Indians through the strategy of non-violent non-cooperation.

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Background

After World War I, Indians faced several problems that fueled anger against British rule:

1. Economic Hardship

   • Prices of everyday goods rose sharply.
   • Factories produced less, leaving many jobless.
   • Taxes and rents increased, affecting farmers and workers.

2. British Oppression

   • The Rowlatt Act allowed imprisonment without trial, angering Indians.
   • The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, where British soldiers killed hundreds of peaceful protestors, shocked the nation.
   • A government inquiry (Hunter Committee) justified British actions, further enraging Indians.

3. Political Discontent

   • The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms introduced limited self-governance (dyarchy), but it fell short of Indian demands for independence.

Additionally, cooperation between Hindus and Muslims grew:

• The Lucknow Pact (1916) brought Hindus and Muslims together politically.
• Protest against the Rowlatt Act united people across religions.

Khilafat Issue

The Khilafat issue emerged as a major cause of protest among Indian Muslims after World War I and became a significant step in uniting Hindus and Muslims against British rule.

Background

The problem began with the British treatment of Turkey after the war. During the war, Turkey had sided with Germany and Austria, who lost. After the war, the British:

• Dismantled the Ottoman Empire, taking away its territories.
• Removed the Ottoman Sultan, who was also the Caliph, the spiritual leader of Muslims worldwide.

For Muslims, the Caliph was a symbol of religious unity and leadership. Indian Muslims, who saw the Caliph as their spiritual leader, were especially angry. They demanded:

1. The Caliph’s control over Muslim holy places should remain intact.
2. The Caliph should keep enough land to maintain his authority.

Formation of the Khilafat Committee

In 1919, Indian Muslims formed the Khilafat Committee to protest British actions. Key leaders included:

• Ali Brothers (Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali)
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
• Ajmal Khan
• Hasrat Mohani

The committee initially used peaceful methods like meetings, petitions, and appeals to pressure the British to change their stance on Turkey.

Shift to Active Resistance

By late 1919, the Khilafat leaders adopted a stronger approach. At the All India Khilafat Conference in Delhi, they:

• Called for a boycott of British goods.
• Advocated non-cooperation with the British government if Turkey was not treated fairly.

Mahatma Gandhi, as the president of the Khilafat Committee, saw this as a chance to unite Hindus and Muslims. He integrated the Khilafat cause with the broader Non-Cooperation Movement, creating a massive national protest against British rule.

The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement

• February 1920: A joint Hindu-Muslim deputation was sent to the Viceroy to address grievances regarding the Khilafat issue, but the mission failed. Gandhi announced that the Khilafat issue would be central, and he would soon lead a non-cooperation movement if the peace treaty terms were unsatisfactory to Indian Muslims.

• May 1920: The Treaty of Sevres dismembered Turkey, intensifying the Khilafat issue.

• June 1920: An all-party conference at Allahabad approved a boycott of schools, colleges, and law courts and asked Gandhi to lead the movement.

• August 31, 1920: The Khilafat Committee formally launched the non-cooperation campaign. (Note: Tilak passed away on August 1, 1920.)

• September 1920: The Congress formally approved the non-cooperation programme, which included:

  • Boycott of government schools and colleges.
  • Boycott of law courts, with justice through panchayats instead.
  • Boycott of legislative councils, although some leaders like C.R. Das initially resisted.
  • Boycott of foreign cloth and promotion of khadi and hand-spinning.
  • Renunciation of government honours and titles.
  • Phase two involved mass civil disobedience, resignation from government services, and non-payment of taxes.
  • Emphasis on Hindu-Muslim unity and removal of untouchability, with a focus on non-violence.

• December 1920: At the Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress:

  • The non-cooperation programme was endorsed.
  • Congress shifted its goal from self-government through constitutional means to swaraj through peaceful and legitimate means, committing to extra-constitutional mass struggle.
  • Organizational changes were made, including the formation of the Congress Working Committee (CWC) and the reduction of the entry fee.
  • Gandhi declared that swaraj could be achieved within a year if the non-cooperation programme was fully implemented.
  • Revolutionary terrorist groups, especially from Bengal, also supported the movement.

• Resignations and Opposition:

  • Leaders like Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie Besant, G.S. Kharpade, and B.C. Pal left the Congress, favoring a constitutional approach.
  • Surendranath Banerjea formed the Indian National Liberal Federation, playing a minor role in national politics thereafter.

The adoption of the non-cooperation movement by the Congress, combined with the earlier Khilafat Committee’s efforts, energized the national movement, leading to a massive popular upsurge in 1921-1922.

Spread of the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movement

The Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movement spread rapidly across India, gathering mass support from various sections of society. Key developments include:

• Nationwide Tour: Gandhi, accompanied by the Ali brothers, undertook a nationwide tour to mobilize support for the movement.

• Educational Impact: Thousands of students left government-run schools and colleges and enrolled in national institutions, such as:

  • Jamia Millia (Aligarh)
  • Kashi Vidyapeeth (Varanasi)
  • Gujarat Vidyapeeth (Ahmedabad)
  • Bihar Vidyapeeth (Patna)

  Prominent leaders like Acharya Narendra Dev, C.R. Das, Lala Lajpat Rai, Zakir Hussain, and Subhash Chandra Bose helped establish and lead these institutions.

• Lawyers' Participation: Many prominent lawyers, including Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, C.R. Das, Vallabhbhai Patel, and others, gave up their practices in support of the movement.

• Economic Boycotts:

  • Large quantities of foreign cloth were publicly burned, and imports of foreign goods fell by half.
  • Picketing of shops selling foreign liquor and toddy was undertaken.
  • The Tilak Swaraj Fund was oversubscribed, raising one crore rupees.

• Volunteer Corps: Congress set up volunteer corps to act as a parallel police force, maintaining order during protests.

• Civil Disobedience:

  • In July 1921, the Ali brothers called for Muslims to resign from the Army as an act of defiance, which led to their arrest in September. Gandhi supported this call and encouraged local Congress bodies to pass similar resolutions.
  • Gandhi also called for civil disobedience in regions where people were ready to participate, leading to local protests like the no-tax movement in Midnapore (Bengal) and Guntur (Andhra).

• Labor Struggles:

  • In Assam, there were strikes in tea plantations, steamer services, and Assam-Bengal Railways, with J.M. Sengupta playing a significant leadership role.

• Protests against British Royalty: The visit of the Prince of Wales to India in November 1921 triggered widespread strikes and demonstrations.

• Local Struggles: Several local movements gained momentum:

  • Awadh Kisan Movement (UP)
  • Eka Movement (UP)
  • Mappila Revolt (Malabar)
  • Sikh agitation for the removal of mahants in Punjab.

These events showcased the deepening unrest and the growing spirit of resistance against British rule across India.

People’s Response to the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movement

The participation in the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movement was widespread but varied across different sections of society.

1. Middle Class

• The middle class played a significant role at the beginning but became more reserved later.
• In major cities like Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, the response was limited, especially towards Gandhi's calls to resign from government service and surrender titles.
• However, leaders like Rajendra Prasad in Bihar and Vallabhbhai Patel in Gujarat supported the movement, seeing it as a non-violent alternative to terrorism.

2. Business Class

• The economic boycott was supported by Indian businesses that had benefitted from the swadeshi movement.
• However, some large business owners were hesitant, fearing potential labor unrest in their factories.

3. Peasants

• Peasants' participation was massive, especially in rural areas.
• The movement provided an opportunity for peasants to express their dissatisfaction, not only with British rule but also with landlords and traders.
• In Bihar, a caste-based confrontation over the sacred thread issue merged with the Non-Cooperation Movement, adding a social dimension.

4. Students

• Students became active volunteers, with many leaving government schools and joining national schools such as Kashi Vidyapeeth, Gujarat Vidyapeeth, and Jamia Millia Islamia.

5. Women

• Women actively participated in the movement, abandoning purdah and offering ornaments for the Tilak Fund.
• They joined picketing protests, targeting shops selling foreign cloth and liquor.

6. Hindu-Muslim Unity

• The movement achieved significant Hindu-Muslim unity.
• Despite occasional violent incidents like the Mappila Uprisings, the participation of Muslims was massive, with many being arrested.
• Gandhi addressed Muslim audiences in mosques, and in some places, he was allowed to address Muslim women’s gatherings, a rare gesture of respect and unity.

Government Response

• May 1921: Gandhi's talks with Viceroy Reading broke down after the government demanded that he urge the Ali brothers to remove violent suggestions from their speeches. Gandhi refused, recognizing the government's attempt to divide him from the Khilafat leaders.
• December 1921: The British government cracked down on the movement:
  • Volunteer corps were declared illegal.
  • Public meetings were banned.
  • The press was censored.
  • Most leaders, except Gandhi, were arrested.

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